GEOGRAPHICAL INFLUENCE OF NEAR EAST REGION ON PAUL’S MISSIONARY JOURNEY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO CONTEMPORARY MISSIONARY MOVEMENT

OLATUNDE ALLEN TIMILEHIN

MAY 2010

INTRODUCTION

Paul the apostle, an itinerant evangelist that evolved the mindset of what mission entail in both early and contemporary church made first official mission trip to the Gentile locations. The mission strategy of which the apostle moved round the Near East Region could be a formula for the modern day’s mission and missionary in reaching the world with the good news. The geographical system of the Asian Region added to the concept of reaching the gentiles of that time. The land topography has a lot to contribute in mission venture in as much the land is mapped out for strategic mission. Paul and Barnabas were called to mission but the application of geographical understanding made the work successful. Though the political, social and land barrier factors hindered them, however, it influenced their movement either on the seas or terrestrial. In this paper, there shall be a review of the impact of geography in mission work in the contemporary in relation to the Pauline mission strategy at Ancient Near East Region.

BRIEF STUDY OF NEAR EAST REGION AND ITS MAP

Near East is the lands around the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from Morocco to the Arabian Peninsula and Iran and sometimes beyond. The central part of this general area was formerly called the Near East, a name given to it by some of the first modern Western geographers and historians, who tended to divide the Orient into three regions. Near East applied to the region nearest Europe, extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf; Middle East, from the Gulf to Southeast Asia; and Far East, those regions facing the Pacific Ocean. The change in usage began to evolve prior to World War II and tended to be confirmed during that war, when the term Middle East was given to the British military command in Egypt. Thus defined, the Middle East consisted of the states or territories of Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, Palestine (now Israel), Jordan, Egypt, The Sudan, Libya, and the various states of Arabia proper (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial States, or Trucial Oman [now United Arab Emirates]. (Encyclopedia Britannica 2009).

The Paul’s Missionary Journey cut across some ancient cities and towns in which the brief analysis of the places will give clear indication of the influences in which the geographical factors that Pauline mission trips adopted. Some of the places are Cyprus, Antioch, Lycia & Pamphylia, Lycaona, Derbe, Ephesus, Tarsus, Corinth, Iconium, Pergamum, Salamis, Paphos etc.

ANTIOCH

The ancient city of Antioch was much larger than its modern counterpart. Strategically located at the crossroads of important caravan routes, it soon became a center of commerce and a city of magnificent architecture rivaled only by Rome and Alexandria. When Syria was conquered by Rome in 64 bc, Antioch became the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The Romans added to the architectural splendors of the city, building temples, palaces, and theaters, extending aqueducts, and paving main streets with marble (Microsoft Encarta 2009).

CYPRUS

The total area of Cyprus is 9,251 sq km (3,572 sq mi). At its greatest length, Cyprus measures about 220 km (about 140 mi) from CapeAndreas in the northeast to the far western edge of the island. Its maximum width, from CapeGáta in the south to CapeKormakiti in the north, is about 90 km (about 60 mi). Small towns dot the landscape of the TroödosMountains on the republic of Cyprus, an island nation in the Mediterranean. The Troödos, the largest of two mountain ranges on island, rise southwest of the flat, treeless plain known as the Mesaoria that covers most of central Cyprus. Although most of Cyprus enjoys a warm climate all year, portions of the Troödos receive winter snows and more than 100 cm (40 in) of rain annually (Microsoft Encarta 2009). In the far northeast of Cyprus, the island narrows abruptly to form the long, slender KarpasPeninsula, which reaches east toward the coast of Syria. Much of central Cyprus is a flat, treeless plain called the Mesaoria, meaning “between the mountains” in Greek. The plain extends from the east to west coasts (Zondervan Handbook of the Bible, 1999).  Cyprus was the home of Barnabas, also the first stage on Paul’s first missionary journeys

MACEDONIA

Macedonia owes its importance neither to its size nor to its population but rather to its location across a major junction of communication routes—in particular, the great north-south route from the Danube River to the Aegean formed by the valleys of the Morava and Vardar rivers and the ancient east-west trade routes connecting the Black Sea and Istanbul with the Adriatic Sea (Encyclopedia Britannica Suite 2009).

CILICIA

Ancient region of Asia Minor, extending along the north and northeast shores of the Gulf of İskenderun (Gulf of Alexandretta), from the Taurus Mountains to the NurMountains (AmanosMountains), now comprising the south-central provinces of İçel and Adana in Turkey. The western part of Cilicia (Cilicia Trachia) is mountainous and forested; much of the eastern part (Cilicia Pedias) consists of fertile plains (Microsoft Encarta 2009).

CORINTH

An ancient and a modern city of the Peloponnesus, in south-central Greece. The remains of the ancient city lie about 50 miles (80 km) west of Athens, at the eastern end of the Gulf of Corinth, on a terrace some 300 feet (90 metres) above sea level. The ancient city grew up at the base of the citadel of the Acrocorinthus—a Gibraltar-like eminence rising 1,886 feet (575 metres) above sea level. The Acrocorinthus lies about 1.5 miles (2.5 km) south of the Isthmus of Corinth, which connects the Peloponnese with central Greece and which also separates the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs from each other. The citadel of the Acrocorinthus rises precipitously above the old city and commands the land route into the Peloponnese, a circumstance that gave Corinth great strategic and commercial importance in ancient times (Encyclopedia Britannica Suite 2009).

TARSUS

A city, south-central Turkey, on the TarsusRiver, about 12 miles (20 km) from the Mediterranean coast. It is an ancient city, on the alluvial plain of ancient Cilicia, the birthplace of St. Paul (Acts of the Apostles 22:3). Excavations by Hetty Goldman before and immediately after World War II at Gözlükule, on the southwestern periphery of the modern town, show that, with some interruptions, settlements had existed there from Neolithic to Islāmic times. Tarsus' prosperity between the 5th century BC and the Arab invasions in the 7th century AD was based primarily on its fertile soil, its commanding position at the southern end of the Cilician Gates (the only major pass in the Taurus Range), and the excellent harbour of Rhegma, which enabled Tarsus to establish strong connections with the Levant (Encyclopedia Britannica Suite 2009).

PAUL’S MISSIONARY JOURNEY IN REVIEW

Aharoni and Avi-Yohah (1986, 154) explain in details the missionary journey of Paul from Jerusalem to Jerusalem. From Jerusalem Paul returned to Antioch. From there he, Barnabas and Mark, set out upon the missionary journeys which are divided into three stages in the Acts of the Apostles. From Seleucia, the harbor of Antioch, they sailed to Cyprus, preaching first at Salamis and then at Paphos, the capital. There they confounded a Jewish magician called Elymas, greatly impressing the proconsul Sergius Paulus.

From Paphos they continued to Perga in Pamphylia (where Mark left them, much to Paul’s displeasure – Acts 15:38). Barnabas and Paul continued on to Antioch Pisidia, preaching on the Sabbath in the synagogue of that locality and causing great dissension in the community. Those of the Jews who clung to the religion of their forefathers appealed to the rulers of the city and forced the Apostles to leave; the same occurred at Iconium. Paul and Barnabas continued to Derbe and Lystra; in the latter town they healed a cripple and narrowly escaped being worshiped as gods. They returned to Pamphylia and took ship from Attalia to Antioch in Syria.

On his second journey Paul took Silas as his companion (they were joined by Timothy at Iconium), while Barnabas and Mark went to Cyprus. Paul returned by land to the cities previously visited in Pisidia and traversed Phrygia until he reached Alexandria Troas on the Aegean Sea. There he was called in a vision to go to Macedonia. Arriving at Philippi, he converted many Gentiles, including Lydia of Thyatira. Paul and Silas were arrested there, but were released with apologies when the authorities realized that Paul was a Roam citizen. They continued to Thessalonica where Jason, Paul’s host, was attacked, and then continued by ship to Athens. In this capital of the Hellenic spirit, Paul is reported to have made his famous speech to the philosophers at the hill of Areopagus, beginning with a reference to the altar of “an unknown god.” From Athens Paul went to Corinth, the capital of the province of Achaia, where he was arrested and brought before the proconsul Gallio. From Corinth Paul sailed to Ephesus and then to Caesarea in Palestine. After he had “greeted the church” at Jerusalem, he returned to Antioch.

Departing from Antioch, Paul went by way of the province of Galatia and Phrygia (a region divided between the provinces of Galatia and Asia) to Ephesus, the metropolis of Asia, a land he had not previously been allowed to visit. He settled there for two years, teaching in the “hall of Tyrannus” and laying the foundations for the churches in Asia. From Ephesus he dispatched Timothy and Erastus to Macedonia. His success in the end enraged the worshipers of Artemis “of the Ephesians,” who rioted in the city and theater, till calmed down by the magistrates. Paul then left for Macedonia and Greece. Finally, he departed from Philippi, passing Troas (where he miraculously saved a young man called Eutychus), and sailed by way of Assos Mitylene, Chios, Samos, and Miletus to Cos Rhodes, and Patara. From there he took a ship to Phoenicia, passing south of Cyprus, and landed at Tyre. The Apostles returned to Jerusalem via Ptolemais and Caesarea. Aharoni & Avi-Yohah (1986, 155).

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NEAR EAST REGION

The land of Israel is situated at the southeastern corner of the Mediterranean at approximately the same latitude as southern Georgia. The proximity of Israel to the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Desert has greatly influenced   her topography, climate, flora, fauna and human history. Rasmussen (1989, 16).

ISLAND: Any area of land smaller than a continent and entirely surrounded by water. Islands may occur in oceans, seas, lakes, or rivers. A group of islands is called an archipelago. Islands may be classified as either continental or oceanic. Oceanic islands are those that rise to the surface from the floors of the ocean basins. The mission trip of the Apostles started along the CyprusIsland which was route to the Perga port in Lycia.

It was place well known by Barnabas because he was native of Cyprus and the terrain of the land has been once surveyed and this gives them the privilege to pass through without any hindrance (Encyclopedia Britannica 2009).  The island was accommodating due to the distant areas away from the metropolis cities around them. So Paul passed the way to start the gospel work. The island was 140 by 53miles to the west. Salamis is the chief eastern city which lay at the mouth of the River Pediaus on the eastern edge of a fertile plain which extended far to the west.

VALLEYS: Elongate depression of the Earth's surface. Valleys are most commonly drained by rivers and may occur in a relatively flat plain or between ranges of hills or mountains. Wherever sufficient rainfall occurs, opportunity exists for the land surface to evolve to the familiar patterns of hills and valleys. There are, of course, hyper arid environments where fluvial activity is minimal. There also are geomorphological settings where the permeability of rocks or sediments induce so much infiltration that water is unable to concentrate on the land surface (Encyclopedia Britannica 2009).  Mostly places visited by Paul and Barnabas and others were highlands regions from 3000 to 6000 feet in which the mountains have valleys in between and the journey was up and down the valley and mountains. Second missionary journey through Phoenician via Tyre led then by valleys that were rift.

MOUNTAINS: Landform that rises prominently above its surroundings, generally exhibiting steep slopes, a relatively confined summit area, and considerable local relief. Mountains generally are understood to be larger than hills, but the term has no standardized geological meaning (Encyclopedia Britannica 2009).  In the Near East Region (Middle East), Mountainous regions of over 6000 feet were at the cities and towns visited by the missionaries. But the movement through Island could bypass mountainous areas, and the trip through Perga may encounter some mountainous places in which Mark refused to go with them and led to disagreement between Paul and Barnabas (Duffield, 1969, 6).

We do not know why Mark left but there may have been reasons. He was afraid of the perils of the mountain journey. The nearest town of any size was a hundred miles away, through dangerous mountains paths and by lonely roads. The caravan companies also passed through the mountains in Asia Minor in which Paul also transport also along spreading the gospel using all opportunity. Youngman (1956, 47) comments that these Apostles made their ways along the plateaus which had new road for some ninety miles along the plain that leads to Iconium, a Greek city of Phrygia in the borders of Lycaonia. The journey was considerably less difficult because there was easier means of transport, perhaps by mule, even in a wagon of some kind. There were marching of soldiers on the route, travelers, traders, and long strings of camels laden with merchandize, pilgrims and occasionally Roman processions of wealthy people returning to or from the far coast. They the Apostle in turn could speak of Jesus and so spread the work father a field than they would ever know.

DESERT: Any large, extremely dry area of land with sparse vegetation. It is one of the Earth's major types of ecosystems, supporting a community of distinctive plants and animals specially adapted to the harsh environment. (Encyclopedia Britannica 2009).  Few places that were desert in nature were not part of Paul’s Missionary Journey. May be the physical influence of the area discouraged the movement and the gospel only preached at the forestry, mountainous and valley places. Actually, harshness of the area does influence the people’s migration therefore having sparse population. Paul did not pass through arid lands.  It is only the Arab countries and part of Egypt that experienced aridity over land. Paul’s understanding proved that condition of a place can attract the residential system that might influence the spread of gospel.

COASTAL PLAIN: Coastal Plain, any flat, low-lying geographical region near the sea. Geologically, the coastal plain is an extension of the submerged continental shelf. (Microsoft Encarta 2009). Most of the mission trip in the Asia Minor was at the coastal plain area due to the domestic needs and commercial purposes of the people. The geographical system of the areas helped Paul in reaching the people that were fishermen and aquatic related occupations, traders, sailors etc. Most residence that heard the gospel was at the close range of the sea of Aegenean and Mediterranean.

SEA AND MARSHLAND: Sea, general designation for all the salt water in all the specific oceans and seas that cover a large area of the surface of the earth. The name is particularly given to bodies of salt water such as the Mediterranean Sea that are partially landlocked and are smaller than the ocean to which they are generally connected (Microsoft Encarta 2009).

Paul and his team voyaged through the sea, in as much it was the only route that was commonly used to connect to islands and mountainous areas of Asia Minor. The attempt to use that route was the decision to start the trip from Cyprus which was an island that Barnabas had a clear understanding about the geographical factors of the way.    There were many things that Sea atmosphere could do to hinder or facilitate success in the mission. There was probably a trading ship bearing copper, fruits (lemons and olive), olive oil and wine on its way from Paphos to the west of Asia Minor. The Paul’s friends boarded the ship which sailed due to North, putting in at Perga, about eight miles up river. However, Paul might have suffered from the effects of Malaria on the sea or whilst staying here in this low lying area of marshland and swamps, so he decided to press forward into the higher healthier mountain range that loomed in the distance. Youngman (1956, 50).

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW OF PAUL’S MISSIONARY JOURNEY

Adams (1934, 413) explains the geographical survey of Asia Minor that Paul’s missionary movements followed in this great overland trails. The first campaigns for example beginning at Antioch in Syria proceeded to the important seaport of Seleucia. This maritime city was located five miles north of the Orontes outlet into the Mediterranean, a total distance of about twenty-one miles from Antioch. Embarking at Seleucia, Barnabas and Saul and Mark made a quick passage to the island of Cyprus, seventy miles southwest, touching first at Salamis and thence overland to the seaport of Paphos, the administrative center of province.

Though having a coast line of approximately four hundred miles, with important centre maintaining commercial and political connections with numerous points in the Levant, Cyprus was hardly more than a point of departure for Asia Minor and its challenging cities. Consequently, Paul and his company passed over the Sea of Lycia to arrive at Attalia and Pamphylia, one hundred and eighty miles to the northwest, thence to the inferior city of Perga, twelve miles to the northeast. Situated in a plain of great fertility, well-watered by the KestrusRiver issuing from the Pisidian uplands, Perga was practically self-supporting. Politically, it was the capital of the province of Pamphylia, the recognized metropolis of this section of Asia Minor. Here are ruins of a Roman theater capable of seating more than 13,000 people. Splendid baths, colonnaded streets, the stadium, temples, and other characteristics of the Greco-Roman centers, indicate a city of considerable population.

Traveling in Asia Minor was not by way of the watercourse; “argosies with portly sail” formed no part of an interior landscape, as in Egypt. Communications was effected by means of an interminable network of ancient highways penetrating every section of the country. These open the roads, improved and fortified, were at the point of their greatest efficiency during the Roan period, thus providing part of the material framework necessary for the extension of Christianity. Adam (1934, 410). The waterways of Asia Minor are not of considerable importance, either from the standing point of size or function. There are no navigable streams penetrating the interior. The bulk of water reaching the seas is from the seaward slopes of the great ranges of the uplands. On the other hand, along the courses of these various streams one may observe beautiful valleys or lowlands, which have played a prominent part in providing some of the necessities of life for a group of flourishing cities. Adam (1934, 408).

The territory comprising Asia Minor lies between the Hellespont and the EuxineSea on the north and the great Mediterranean basin on the south. It has an average width of about 340 miles. Its western borders frontier stands the massive range of the Armenian Taurus Mountains, perilous and forbidding. Adam (1934, 404) The total area embraced, roughly estimated, is approximately 200,000 square miles, which is equivalent to a section of US consisting of the New England States, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and West Virginia.

Moreover, Adam (1965, 180) in his research states that Asia Minor sustained very important relations to other portions of the biblical world. It was a great causeway whose geographical span connected continents. At the tip of the peninsula, the shore lines of Europe and Asia almost touched. The natural gateway to and from the four quarters of the earth. It was most appropriate that the scene of Paul’s enlarged missionary activity should have been laid at Troas, the outpost of the old world. Here, where Europe joined hand with Asia, a vision appeared to Paul in the night – a man standing, beseeching, and saying come over into Europe and help us (cf. Acts 16:8-9). The answer of Paul and his friends was in full keeping with an expanding campaign designed sooner or later to touch all borderlands of the Mediterranean and beyond.

Foster (1914, 268) notes that Antioch was also the natural geographical center from which to set out upon his missionary journeys, importance of the pioneer work of Paul. In all his missionary activity, Paul evident followed a definite plan. He selected as the scenes of his work the great cities, situated on the main highways of communication and commerce. This choice was in part due to the fact that in the larger cities of this character were found Jewish communities, which synagogues which opened doors of opportunity to the pupil of the famous Rabbi Gamaliel. The result was that many of the Gentiles had accepted the essentials of the Jewish religion and worshipped with the Jews in their synagogues. The devout Greeks was drawn a large proportion of the converts who responded to the early preaching of Paul and other apostles. With these conditions in mind, Paul and Barnabas planned their first missionary journey. Cilicia belonged within Antioch’s sphere of influence and was indeed part of the province of Asia. They turned to the immediately adjacent island of Cyprus and the roman province of Galatia, lying respectively to the southwest and northwest. Cyprus possibly attracted them because Barnabas was a native of that island. Salamis its chief eastern city was first visited. It lay at the mouth of the River Pediaeus on the eastern edge of a fertile plain which extended far to the west.

At Paphos, from salamis, two Roman highways ran across the island to paphos, the chief city on its western shores. It was situated on the sea-coast, being in the fact the seaport of the older inland city ten miles to the southwest. From paphos it was easy to secure a passage northward to the coast of pamphylia. For along this course passed many of the merchant ships from Alexandria to Rome. The apostles probably landed at Attalia and thence went to Perga. The climate of those low-lying coast plains was sultry and malarial. Because of these unfavorable conditions, Paul and Barnabas simply passed through this southern city on their way to the great strategic centers farther north.

RELEVANCE AND APPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY TO CONTEMPORARY

MISSION AND MISSIONARY

The Paul’s Missionary Journey has basic guidance and guidelines that contemporary mission agencies should learn from before embarking on mission trip. It was a systematic approach of Paul to mission that gave him success as he moved from Jerusalem through Antioch back to Jerusalem after the third missionary journey. Likewise a contemporary missionary should apply systematic and prior understanding of the mission through comprehensive planning and enforcement of such plan in the sprit of teamwork. The study of Paul’s Missionary Journey gives the writer the exposure on what the contemporary mission movement should know and apply in this 21st century in order to enhance speed in gospel spreading and to reduce danger during the course of the mission.

Broad Understanding of the Mission and the Mission Field

Necessity of Land Survey

Transportation Networking Influence on Mission.

Field Teamwork

Avoidance of Harsh and Dangerous Locations

Understanding the Influence of Geography on People.

BROAD UNDERSTANDING OF THE MISSION AND THE MISSION FIELD

The exposure over the past and present state of the mission to embark upon is very vital in the mission enterprise. The prior understanding of the mission and location by Barnabas influenced success at the beginning of the task. The known mission work is an avenue to explore and exploit the land with their strength and weakness. The fore knowledge of the people and the culture together with the physical structure give way to the heart of the land and the people.

NECESSITY OF LAND SURVEY

Land Survey has to do with the physical visibility of the missionary in the land to explore for Christ. The accurate information of the mountain, rivers, weather foreast, trees and other physical structure will help in having a good master plan board to strategize the movement within the territory and the neighborhood. Mapping and map reading will be an added advantage to the task. The movement of Paul through the Asia Minor was an output of good planning. Though the course in the land was hindered by the political and philosophical interest of the people, yet the team knew another way out. Land survey opens the mind of the people on the paper through their natural phenomena that makes living possible.

 TRANSPORTATION NETWORKING INFLUENCE ON MISSION.

The road network through the valley and the plateau even on the sea were all used by Paul to enter and exit the land. The roads where the people did pass and traders also trend were all means of evangelism for Paul. The interconnectivity of the land gave Paul the chance to decide or re-decide to change route with full understanding of the mountainous factors. When the sea was unconducive because of illness, plateaus was used either. 21st century missionary should have broad knowledge about the ‘in and out’ of the mission field. The road mapping and the means of transportation that will be comfortable to trend through should be adopted.

FIELD TEAMWORK

All the team should be able to accommodate the topographical or geographical structure of the land. The selection of missionary to the mission work should be on the call, not by interest. Paul did reshuffle the team to evict Mark because he could not understand what mission entails. Teamwork gives much progress in confronting geographical challenges together in one spirit of possibility.

AVOIDANCE OF HARSH AND DANGEROUS LOCATIONS

When the accurate knowledge of a place is known, that it is dangerous to embark on mission due to less safety condition, it is better to avoid than to risk and disrupt the mission or vandalized the enthusiasm in the team. Danger escapes today give more privilege to do more of the task with the Lord. Know the dangerous zone to avoid distraction and unnecessary fear that discourages mission spirit within the team.

UNDERSTANDING THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY ON PEOPLE.

The comprehensive idea of the geography helps on the strategic planning of the mission. The ground level places accommodate some people that are mountainous in occasion and the sea plains or riverside area should an abode for the aquatic related vocation. Geography makes people what they are; either by culture or occupation or religion. Paul took advantages of traders that passed through the plateaus. The fishermen and the merchandizes knew Christ because Paul used their route.

CONCLUSION

Mission with understanding of the nature of land makes the priority in the mind and the spreadsheet of a strategic visionary missionary works effectively. The adaptation to a place agrees with the data (information) collated in the course of the mission planning. From the past decades, mission had been hazardous and hereby discouraging the fresh missionary with full enthusiasm. Jesus Christ has not called us to die on the attempt to spread the gospel but He has endowed us with understanding as we go to the world of harvest of souls.

Paul and his team had a smooth and rough journey on the first official mission trip, yet success was recorded. Contemporary mission agencies should know the facts and figures of the land, sea and culture of the people before embarking on the miserable adventure rather than missionary journey ordered by God.

WORKS CITED

Adams, J. McKee. Biblical backgrounds: A Geographical Survey of Bible Lands in the Light of the Scriptures and Recent Research. Nashville, Tennessee Broadman press, 1934. 404-413.

Adams, J. McKee. Revised by Callaway Joseph, A. Biblical Backgrounds: A Geographical Survey of Bible Lands in the Light of the Scriptures and Recent Research. Nashville, Tennessee Broadman press, 1965. 180.

Aharoni, Yohanan & Avi-Yohah, Michael. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. London: The Macmillan Company Press, 1986. 154-5.

Duffield, Guy. P. Handbook of Bible Lands.California: G/L Publication, 1969. 6.

Encyclopædia Britannica. Near East. Encyclopædia Britannica 2009 Ultimate ReferenceSuite.  Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.

Foster, Kent Charles. Biblical Geography and History. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1914. 268.

Microsoft Encarta 2009. Microsoft Corporation, 1993-2008.

Rasmussen, Carl. Zondervan NIV Atlas of the Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1989. 16.

Youngman, Bernard R. Spreading the Gospel. London: Hulton Educational Publications, 1965. 47-51.

Zondervan Handbook of the Bible. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1999.