THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS: FAILURES AND ACHIEVEMENT

ALLEN T. OLATUNDE

NOVEMBER 2011

INTRODUCTION

Islam bursts forth in the form of an epic: now a heroic history is written with the sword, and in a religious context this sword assumes a sacred function; combat becomes an ideal. (Schuon 115).  War after the dead of Mohammed led to the need to raise leaders of the sect. the Caliphs were the people elected to lead the religion as the Lord had destined it. The word “Caliph” means successor, substitute, lieutenant, viceroy. The prophet was the Caliph of God in the Adamic sense, although his successors could lay claim to the title only insofar as they were his representatives, and carried on his functions as spiritual head and temporal ruler of the Islamic state. The successors could not, of course, presume to continue the prophetic function. Nevertheless, the ultimate sense of “Caliph” always clung to the office. As the first four Caliphs, Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman, and ‘Ali, had each a spiritual station commensurate with the function they performed, they are called al-khulafa ar-rashidun, the “rightly guided” or the “patriarchal Caliphs” (Glasse 112). The first system of government established in Islam and represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah (community). In theory, it is an aristocratic-theocratic constitutional republic (Lecker 251). The decision over who should be the first caliph resulted in a division that has endured to this day. The first four caliphs to rule after the death of Muhammad were devotee to their founder. The death of Muhammad in 632 created confusion in the nascent Muslim community, for Muhammad had left no details as to who should succeed him (http://www.princeton.edu).

THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS AFTER MOHAMMED

THE FIRST CALIPH: ABU BAKR

Failure and Achievements

Originally, after the death of the Prophet the Caliph was selected, Abu Bakr appointed ‘Umar by himself (Glasse 112).  One group of followers held that Muhammad himself had chosen 'Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, as his successor. Others insisted that Abu Bakr, Muhammad's good friend and father-in-law, be given the caliphate. In the end, Abu Bakr would become the first of four caliphs, each of whom contributed significantly to the development and spread of Islam (http://www.religionfacts.com). After a heated discussion by the senior members of the community, Abu Bakr was selected as the first caliph. However, the confusion did not end with Abu Bakr's accession. Tribes all around Arabia broke out in open revolt; while they continued to acknowledge Muhammad as a prophet, they refused to send taxes to Medina now that Muhammad no longer lived. Known as the "Wars of Apostasy" in Muslim chronicles, the rebellions were not subdued until the end of 633. Despite these internal problems, Abu Bakr pursued Muhammad's expansionist policy and sent Muslim forces into Syria and Iraq, initiating their eventual conquest. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr appointed Umar b. al-Khattab as his successor (http://www.princeton.edu).

THE SECOND CALIPH: UMAR

Failure and Achievements

The second caliph was Umar, another father-in-law of Muhammad, who had been named by Bakr as his successor. His caliphate lasted from 634 to 644. One of his first contributions was to add "Commander of the Faithful" to his title, which was used by all subsequent caliphs. His primary contribution, though, was a series of military victories resulting in the rapid expansion of Islam. He conquered Damascus in 635 and Jerusalem in 637, both from Syria in the Byzantine Empire. Realizing the importance of loyalty in his new subjects, Umar instituted a policy of religious tolerance in his new lands. This was received gratefully by Jews and Christians, who had been persecuted under the Byzantines. He instituted two taxes, the kharaj for landowners with productive fields and the jizya, which non-Muslims paid in return for the privilege of practicing their religion (http://www.religionfacts.com). The `Umar continued to send out troops harnessing the energy of the Bedouin tribes and in 636 the Muslims defeated the Persians at Qadisiyya in a battle which proved to be decisive. Thereafter the Persians continually retreated; the Muslims quickly conquered northern Iraq and moved into western Iran. After the battle at Nihavand in 642, the Persians could offer no more resistance and the remainder of Iran was left open to conquest. The last Sassanid king fled to Khurasan and was assassinated in 651 (http://www.princeton.edu). Umar led his troops into northern Iraq and Armenia, and into Egypt. The Byzantines relinquished Egypt to the Muslims under a peace treaty in 641.

The peace treaties concluded under Umar allowed the conquered peoples to retain their land and religion; they were given the status of "protected peoples" (dhimmi) and were required to pay a special tax, known as the jizya. Abandoned lands were confiscated to supply income for the treasury. Soldiers and notables such as Muhammad's relatives received compensation from the state; these pensioners were listed in a register, the diwan. Umar retained the local administrators but appointed governors to oversee their work. The soldiers were housed in garrison towns, which prevented them from interacting with the local population and also kept them mobilized. Among his many legal rulings, Umar is credited with the fixing of a new era to the year of the emigration from Mecca to Medina (hijra): 1 A.H. = 622 C.E. (Erling n.p.).

Seriki, however, observes that ‘Umar proved himself to be the most successful leader and ruler of men. He was a genius with rare talent for capacity building and organizing constructive statesmanship. He consolidated Islam and built a great Empire for the Muslims. He was regarded as the practical founder of Islamic state. ‘Umar was an embodiment of softness and sternness. He was soft and mild to the meek. He was humble and a father to the poor and needy. He was at the same time harsh and stern to the unruly. The leadership trait of ‘Umar did lay solid foundation for leaders and administrators of all time. If leaves are borrowed from his method of governance, it will be a lot better for all the nations of the world. The result of every anger which used to begin with madness is always a regret. This assertion is exactly what led to the fate of Abu Lu’lu who committed suicide after his negative behaviour. Every person should therefore imbibe patience and avoid anger (http://www.nou.edu.ng).

THE THIRD CALIPH: ‘UTHMAN

Failure and Achievements

Holt notes that nearing ‘Umar’s death, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph—they were charged to choose one of their own numbers. All of the men, like 'Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh—the Ansar, or Medinans, had been gradually shut out of power. This committee would prove to be pivotal, for on its choice would eventually grow Islam's first schism. The committee narrowed down the choices to two: 'Uthman and 'Ali. 'Ali was the son-in-law of Muhammad and had been a companion to the prophet from the inception of his mission. He may also have been named by Muhammad as a successor. (http://forum.davidicke.com). After Umar's assassination in 644, a six-member committee appointed as caliph selected Uthman B. Affan (644-656). During his reign, grievances that had been stifled under Umar's heavy-handed rule rose to the surface; among the members of the opposition was one Ali B. Abi Talib, who was one of the members of Umar's committee and would become the fourth caliph after Uthman's death. It was in fact Uthman's continuation of Umar's policy of favoritism and state unity which generated complaints (http://www.princeton.edu). Uthman, a member of the influential Umayyad family, was chosen as Umar's successor, leaving Ali's supporters once again disappointed and angry (http://www.religionfacts.com).

First, Uthman attempted to retain the unity of the empire by appointing members of his own clan, the Umayyads, to governorships; in particular, the governorship of his kinsman Muawiya was enlarged to include the whole of Syria and northern Iraq. These actions led to the charge of nepotism by Uthman's detractors. Second, he attempted to generate income for the diwan by continuing to push the borders of the empire further north, west, and east. However, the booty obtained was not enough to maintain the diwan, and this difficulty, along with the increase in the numbers of soldiers and Uthman's adding his governors and family members to the list of pensioners, forced a reduction in the soldiers' stipends. This naturally created more discontent. Third, Uthman was accused of religious innovation: he authorized an official version of the Qur'an and had all other copies burned. As the Qur'an reciters had enormous influence over the masses, this action helped to assert the hegemony of the caliphate in religious affairs and to further the unification of the empire (http://www.princeton.edu).  That is he ordered a complete revision of the Quran, this would cause a mutiny. He was killed and his death was considered justified because the mutineers claimed he ceased to be a Muslim (http://www.truthnet.org/islam). However, his death was from the hands of discontented Egyptians in 656 and the notables of Medina selected Ali b. Abi Talib as caliph (http://www.princeton.edu).

‘Uthmān bn Affān ruled over the Muslim empire for twelve solid years. During his Khilāfah, the empire expanded in Asia and Africa. The first half of his reign was peaceful but the second half was turbulent. He suppressed many rebellions and forced many territories to recognize the sovereignty of Islam and pay tributes to the Muslim rulers. His reign constituted a glorious period in the history of Islam. He ensured that the territories of Islamic states were immensely extended. He made a lot of conquests and recorded land mark victories. During his reign, he constructed a huge dam to protect Madinah against flood and to regulate the supply of water to the city. He built many roads and bridges, Mosques and guest houses in different parts of the empire. He also expanded the Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah and embellished it. ‘Uthmān established Arab navy and was the first to establish constabulary. Like his predecessor, he administered armed forces, provinces, revenue and public treasury. He was a great scholar who spent a lot of his time in preaching to prisoners of war (‘Uthaymīn http://www.nou.edu.ng).

THE FOURTH CALIPH: ‘ALI

Failure and Achievements

Ali the 4th Caliph, Mohammad’s son-in-law and husband of Fatima, succeeded Uthman everybody did not accept him as rightful Caliphate.  (http://www.truthnet.org/islam). Madinah, the seat of Islam, remained in state of anarchy after the murder of ‘Uthmān for few days. The mutineers stayed back and remained in the control for these few days because who is who had fled to Damascus, some to Makkah. Most of the respected citizens disappeared into thin air. This situation was so because the insurgents’ shameful act of assassination of the Caliph could never be imagined by people like ‘Alī and other eminent Companions. After the rude shock, the mutineers became obsessed with the fact that the whole empire was now without a head and a government. In order not to allow the conquered provinces to be thrown into chaos, they quickly constituted central authority. They offered the Caliphate to ‘Alī which he reluctantly accepted. So, on 23rd of June 656CE many swore allegiance to him. Talhah and Zubayr at first did not want to take a pledge until the case of ‘Uthmān’s assassination was decided. They were compelled under the threats of the insurgents to take the pledge of loyalty at ‘Alī ’s hands on the condition that ‘Alī should be ready to decide matters according to the Holy Qur’ān and Sunnah and that he should bring to book all the assassins according to Islamic law. ‘Alī acceded to their conditions. Many of Banu Umayyah who refused to pledge went to Syria (http://www.nou.edu.ng).

Although he continued to have staunch supporters, ʿAlī's authority was weakened in many areas during the last two years of his caliphate. A number of prominent Muslims even met in Adrūh in 659 with the thought of deposing both ʿAlī and Muʿāwiyah and appointing as caliph ʿAbd Allāh, son of ʿUmar, but they did not reach a final decision. Meanwhile, some of the Khārijites decided to assassinate ʿAlī, Muʿāwiyah, and ʿAmr ibn al-ʿAṣ. Although the latter two escaped, ʿAlī did not: on the 19th of Ramadan in the year 660, he was struck in the back of the head with a poisoned sword while praying in the mosque of Kufa (Encyclopedia Britannica 2010). The Shi’a (Party of Ali) mourned the death of Ali, and his two sons (Grandsons of Mohammed). Ali is revered as a saint by the Shi’a who is dominating in Iran and Iraq.  The Shi’a feel Ali was the rightful successor to Mohammed and don’t recognize the three earlier Caliphs.  The Sunnis accept Ali and the first three Caliphates as legitimate (http://www.truthnet.org/islam).

‘Alī who earned the appellation “Asadullah” the lion of Allah was thirty years younger than his mentor Prophet Muhammad. Through the valuable guardianship he received from the noble prophet, he became so brave and highly knowledgeable. He indeed excelled in sword and pen. The sterling qualities he possessed earned him the great affection from the Prophet and thus became his son-in-law. From boyhood he became constant Companion of the Prophet. He enjoyed with the Prophet and at the same time swallowed bitter pills with him. He even risked his life for the safety of the Prophet during his Hijrah. The premonition that ‘Alī had that he would be fishing in a troubled water made him a reluctant ruler. The chaotic situation at Madinah shortly after the assassination of ‘Uthmān sent jitters to his spines. None compliance of the Sabaites to the order of the Caliph and their pretension to be his loyalists including other difficult situations created a bottle-neck for the Caliph. As a straight forward person, he knew that the Caliphate was a great trust, thus he first resorted to conflict resolution before tackling the assassins (http://www.nou.edu.ng). The significance of ʿAlī in all aspects of the religious and intellectual life of Shīʿite Islam can hardly be overemphasized. In the daily call to prayer in Shīʿite countries, and in some Shīʿite mosques in Sunni countries where such an act does not cause major opposition, his name is mentioned after that of the Prophet in the formula ʿAlīun walī Allāh (“ʿAlī is the saint of God”). The science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by ʿAlī. ʿAlī's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or “divine philosophy (Encyclopedia Britannica 2010).

CONCLUSION

All these devotees that succeeded Mohammed faced crisis of leadership, however, they eventually had landmark in the religion. Their effects on the religious decisions had caused two main rivalry decisions in which their views are never agreed. Caliphs are the leaders in Islamic state which is seen as the Caliphate council in the contemporary time. At last, these four caplihs lived on earth to mark effects on both even and odd aspect of life. 
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